Location: Introduction

So DO you need this book? Well, that depends. If you can answer yes to any of the following questions, then this book is definitely for you:

• Do you want a comprehensive discussion of many aspects of physics, without having to feed through a gigantic Physics 2 book and sort out complex equations?
• Are you stuck grading this?
• Are you NOT plagiarizing this book?
• Do you want to learn more than just the bare essentials of physics from an oversimplified text?
• Do you want an extensive reference that will remain accurate for years?

Warning: This document is protected by Menlo School anti-plagiarism policy! You may not copy, reproduce, excerpt or in any way quote material from this site without the express written consent of the author.

Part 1, "Waves", introduces you to waves. You learn about the different types of waves, the properties of those waves, and what happens when they pass through different materials.

Chapter 1, "Introduction to Waves", introduces you to the basic properties of waves. You learn how to calculated waves speed. You learn about the different types of waves, what happens when two waves encounter each other, and the phenomena produced by waves.

Chapter 2, "Sound", introduces you to sound waves. You learn where sound waves come from, what things can transmit them and how to calculate the speed of sound. You also learn what loudness really is, what forced vibrations produce, and what natural frequency plays in them. You discover what happens when you hear something.

Chapter 3, "Light", discusses what light really is. You learn several properties of the speed of light, how light is an electromagnetic wave, what light’s two forms are, what happens when light tries to pass through different objects, and what happens in an absence of light. Finally, you discover how to eliminate certain light waves.

Chapter 4, "Color", talks about the color spectrum, and the different ways of creating colors from white light. You learn about how and what happens when you mix colored light. It discusses natural phenomena about colors in our lives.

Chapter 5, "Reflection and Refraction", discusses what happens when light hits a reflective surface, and the several types of reflection. You learn what happens when light passes between mediums of different densities. Chapter 5 talks about atmospheric reflection, why prisms separate light into a spectrum, why fiber-optic cables work, and what happens when you see a rainbow.

Chapter 6, "Lenses", introduces you to manipulating light in order to see more or less of any object. It discusses several optical instruments used in real life, including the structure of the eye, and defects present in many lenses.

Part 2, "Matter" introduces you to matter, which is what the universe is made out of. You learn about the atom, which makes matter, and how such atoms can bond to make different compounds. Also discussed are two states of matter, the liquid phase and the gaseous phase.

Chapter 7, "Introduction to Matter", talks about what matter is composed of. It discusses molecules, compounds, the parts of an atom, phases of matter, and bonds between molecules.

Chapter 8, "Liquids", introduces you to the liquid phase of matter. You learn about liquid pressure, buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle. Chapter 8 also discusses flotation and Pascal’s Principle.

Chapter 9, "Gases", teaches you about the gaseous phase of matter. It discusses the atmosphere, how barometers work and the two types of barometers. This chapter discusses Boyle’s Law of pressure, why buoyancy principles also apply to air, Bernoulli’s Principle and the applications of Bernoulli’s Principle.

Part 3, "Heat" talks about what temperature is and how it is essential to the universe. You learn how all materials can be manipulated with heat, and how it plays a major role in our lives. Finally, part 3 touches back on the four states of matter and how matter can change between them.

Chapter 10, "Introduction to Heat" defines what temperature is. It talks about what we think is heat, and what happens when two adjacent objects have different temperatures. You will learn what thermal energy is, how we measure heat and exactly how much energy a material must absorb before its temperature rises. Chapter 10 discusses why water’s high specific heat capacity is beneficial to Bay Area climates, what thermal expansion is and why it occurs, and the strange expansion of water.

Chapter 11, "Heat Transfer" discusses the three ways thermal energy is transferred. It defines what conduction, convection and radiation are, when they occur, and what happens when they occur. This chapter talks about absorption and emission of radiant energy, Newton’s laws of cooling, and touches back on the greenhouse effect.

Chapter 12, "Changes of Phase" includes a discussion of how matter can change between solid, liquid, gas and plasma form. You will learn how water can switch between water and vapor without massive amounts of energy. Chapter 12 also defines what happens when something boils or freezes. You will learn the newest reasons why ice seems so slippery and why objects glide along the ice. Finally, this chapter discusses the relationships between thermal energy of an object and changing its phase. This chapter presents the first Special Feature, which shows you how a liquid can boil and freeze at the same time.

Part 4, "Electricity" talks about a thing that is of immense importance to the western world, but also taken for granted by many. That thing is electricity. We see the effects of electricity in the form of lightning during thunderstorms. This section aims to teach you many of the technical details about what electricity is, and how it works. You will begin with a short chapter on the basics of electricity and then launches into an in-depth discussion of several laws of electricity. It ends with a demonstration of the three ways of using static electricity to charge objects. The next chapter deals with electric fields. You will learn what electric fields are, how they are expressed using field lines, and what happens to fields when you’re inside a metal ball. This chapter finishes off with a definition of voltage and an article on the function of Van de Graaff generators. Chapter 14 will tell you about the flow of charges through conductors. You will learn where electricity comes from, and how it can be resisted. Next you learn about the two types of current. Part 4 finishes with a discussion about the two types of circuits, and how resistance fits into the whole picture.

Chapter 13, "Electrostatics" discusses electrical forces and defines charges. The Law of Conservation of Charge is briefly discussed, as well as Coulomb’s Law. This chapter features a comparison of the gravitational force and the electrical force. This chapter talks about the differences and similarities between heat conductors and electric conductors. Finally, you will learn the three methods of charging using static electricity.

Chapter 14, "Electric Fields and Potential" defines what electric fields are. You will learn how electric fields are described using electric field lines, and how to shield sensitive objects from electric fields. This chapter discusses how voltage is really just a difference in electric potential. Chapter 17 also talks about how to store electric energy, and finishes off with feature article on how Van de Graaff generators work, and how ink-jet printers print.

Chapter 15, "Electric Current" describes the flow of charge in a conductor. You will learn how electricity is always current (and up-to-date). This chapter talks about where electricity can come from, and how it can be resisted by many materials. Chapter 18 will tell you about the two types of current, how to convert between the two, and the role of electrons in electricity.

Chapter 16, "Electric Circuits" teaches you the basics about electric circuitry. You will discover what the two types of circuits are, and the advantages to using each. Chapter 20 tells you how you draw circuitry on paper (and includes a whole new appendix detailing this). You will be shown the effect of combining resistors in a circuit. This chapter finishes off with a discussion about the dangers of overloading circuits and several ways to prevent this, including Raychem’s PolySwitch™ device.

Part 5, "Magnetism" is about magnets and magnetism. Chapter 17 introduces magnetism to you. You’ll learn the basics of magnetism and the terminology associated with it. Next you discover how bar magnets work, the relationship between electric and magnetic fields, and also how wires can move in the presence of a magnetic field. Chapter 17 finishes off with a short discussion of several devices that utilize electricity. Chapter 18 will teach you some of the more difficult parts of magnetism. You learn how to create a current using a magnet and a wire coil, why energy is easily and efficiently transferred at high voltages, and we’ll have another discussion of electromagnetic waves and how they relate to electricity and magnetism.

Chapter 17, "Introduction to Magnetism" discusses the basics of magnetism. You will learn what magnetic poles are and what a magnetic field is. This chapter also explains how certain iron bars are magnetic while others are not. You will learn why electric and magnetic fields are related, and also how moving charges are affected by magnetic forces. Chapter 17 will also introduce you to several simple devices powered by electricity. We finish this chapter with a discussion of the earth’s magnetic field.

Chapter 18, "Electromagnetic Induction" continues the discussion of magnetism. It starts off by describing how magnetic fields can also be used to create electric current. Faraday’s Law draws(?) the relationship between electric fields and magnetic fields. You will learn what happens when you flip the energy inputs and outputs of a motor, and how transformers can be used to step up and down the voltage. You’ll discover why power companies transmit AC current at high voltages. Finally, you will learn about the complement of Faraday’s Law, and how it pertains to electromagnetic waves.

Part 6, "Mechanics" includes a comprehensive discussion of motion. You will learn about two different types of motion, linear motion, and parabolic motion (that is, projectile motion). Part 6 explains how we express velocity, acceleration and distance through vectors, and how vectors can be added to produce a new vector. This section finishes with a discussion of how vectors can be resolved into components and how we can derive statistics about parabolic motion from these measurements.

Chapter 19, "Motion" defines motion. It describes what speed and velocity are and explains the differences between the two. You will learn what acceleration is and what free fall is. Chapter 13 helps you to discern the differences in graphs of motion, and discusses the role that air resistance plays in any falling object.

Chapter 20, "Projectile Motion" discusses the differences between vector and scalar quantities in depth. This chapter demonstrates how you can use vectors to represent different velocities, distances and accelerations. You will learn how to resolve a vector into its components. Chapter 14 tells you how vectors are used to calculate things about upwardly launched projectiles, and finishes with a discussion of how satellites remain in orbit of planets.

Part 7, "Newton’s Laws" discusses the three basic laws of Newtonian physics. Chapter 21 talks about Newton’s First Law of Motion—Inertia, how it relates to motion, and what mass really is. The next chapter talks about Newton’s Second Law of Motion—Force and Acceleration. Finally, Chapter 23 will tell you about the last of Newton’s three laws concerning motion.

Chapter 21, "Newton’s First Law of Motion: Inertia" talks about the first of Newton’s three laws. It starts out with a summary of the ancient ways of thinking. You will learn about Newton’s perspective, and what he concluded about motion. Next comes a discussion of what mass is and how it relates to inertia. Finally, Chapter 15 includes a discussion about net forces, how forces are added, and how earth’s movement affects (or doesn’t affect) inertia.

Chapter 22, "Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Force and Acceleration" defines the second of Newton’s laws concerning motion. You will learn the relationship between acceleration and force, and learn more about what mass is. Next you will see how friction fits into the scheme of life, and review what pressure is. Finally, you will learn more about free fall. Chapter 16 ends with another discussion about air resistance.

Chapter 23, "Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Action and Reaction" tells you about the last of Newton’s laws concerning motion. This third law is probably one of the trickiest to learn; without careful thinking you may become lost. The first topic discussed in this chapter is forces and interactions. You will learn about action and reaction forces, and what happens with two masses of equal and unequal masses. This chapter presents two special features: "Do Action and Reaction Forces Cancel?" which discusses when and how action and reaction forces cancel each other out. It includes a mini-lab to help you understand the first special feature. The next feature, "The Horse-Cart Problem" presents a solution to the famous question about how a horse can pull a cart. The chapter ends with a wrap-up about action and reaction.

Part 8, "Advanced Motion" goes over the more advanced topics of linear motion. You will learn about momemtum, energy and gravitation, and how those three components influence physics.

Chapter 24, "Momentum" walks you through the basics of momentum. You will learn what momentum is, how it is changed, and several important properties about momentum. The two types of collisions are discussed in this chapter, along with a description of how momentum is involved with collisions and what role it plays in determining velocities. This chapter wraps up with a return to vectors, and as its special feature, involves a case of missing fish.

Chapter 25, "Energy" directly addresses the issue about what energy is. You will learn about concepts related to energy, such as work and power. This chapter discusses what mechanical energy is, and the two types of energy. Next comes a discussion of conservation of energy. This chapter finishes with a discussion about machines and efficiency, and a short discussion of how energy relates to biology.

Chapter 26, "Universal Gravitation" In this chapter you will learn about one of the greatest discoveries about gravity. This chapter details how Newton founded his idea of gravitation (which includes the apple tree), and discusses the equation he arrived at. We will take another look at satellite motion, particularly how the moon orbits the earth, and conclude with a discussion of the inverse square laws and how gravity is universal.

Chapter 27, "Gravitational Interactions" discusses several uses of gravity. It starts with a discussion of gravitational fields. You will then learn about gravitational fields inside, outside and on the surface of planets. That is followed with a discussion about what "weightlessness" is and concludes with a talk about ocean tides and tides in the earth itself and the atmosphere. This chapter’s feature article describes what a black hole is, some of the properties of a black hole, and how they are formed.

Part 9, "Nuclear Physics" continues the discussion of the incredibly tiny particles call atoms. You will learn the basics about atoms, and then you will be immersed in a more detailed discussion of radioactivity. Part 9 goes out with a bang as we discuss the two of the perhaps most heavily publicized parts of nuclear physics: fission and fusion reactors.

Chapter 28, "The Atom and the Quantum" is a more detailed discussion of what we covered in the section on matter. You will learn about the various atomic models, and the dual nature of light: wave or particle? Chapter 28 finishes with a discussion about electron as waves, the size of atoms and introduces you to quantum physics.

Chapter 29, "The Atomic Nucleus and Radioactivity" contains a discussion of radioactivity. You will learn about radioactive decays, isotopes, and the products of decay. Next comes a lesson on transmutation. Chapter 29 ends with a discussion of how radiation affects every living person. This chapter has three feature articles: one on carbon-14 dating, uranium dating and radiation tracing.

Chapter 30, "Nuclear Fission and Fusion", the very last chapter of this book, finishes off with a discussion of the two types of major nuclear reactions: fission and fusion. You will learn about what fission is, where it can take place, what fuels and conditions are necessary to sustain a reaction, and a cheap and easy way to create fission fuel. Included is a short discussion of the relationship between mass and energy, which is a briefing on relativity. Last in this chapter is a lesson on nuclear fusion. Like fission, you will learn what it is, where it can take place, and what fuel and conditions are necessary for a sustained reaction. You will also learn about the benefits and drawbacks to each type of nuclear reaction in putting them to a practical use: electricity generation.

This edition you are reading, Portfolio ’98 edition, is perhaps the last of the Portfolios. But then again, where have we heard that before? Anyway, I have undertaken the enormous task of converting all these documents to Word97 format and hyperlinking the sections together. If you see some blue underlined text, you can click on that text to go to that particular section.

For improvements in the 8^th edition I am enormously grateful to the FROG for his technical editing. Without him and The Tall Guy, this 8^th edition would never be where it is today. For getting this book started in the first place, and being good resources for the 1^st through the 8^th editions, I would like to thank Mr. McGlohn of Menlo School. If students are typing theirs, they are probably groaning "Why do I have to do this portfolio?!" For critiquing all 8 editions of this book I am thankful to The Not So Thin Man and even The FROG wanted part of it. Finally, I would like to thank myself for not keeling over during the long 16-hour sessions in typing this crazy thing. My hand-mouse-drawing is well appreciated and noted. It seems my (our?) design specialist has much better eye-hand-mouse coordination nowadays, and seems to be stuck in editing mode—always dreaming up ways to redesign for maximum efficiency…but that’s for later. I would like to thank the Word 7 spelling checker for catching my stupid typing errors—when you’ve got a hot idea, you only care about the ideas, not whether or not it’s speld corekly. J (Those last two errors were jokes.) In case you wonder, the only reason why I did this every day during my so-called vacation is because I didn’t have anything else to do, and the things I could do were boring and pointless by oneself. Nobody at Menlo lives even close to where I do, so most of my vacations are rather dull, boring and lonely. Then again, most everything seems boring nowadays at the end of the semester right before summer break…

After the 7^th edition was published, Mr. McGlohn that that particular portfolio had been read by both the headmaster and the academic dean. Soon afterwards, the portfolio came back gushing with congratulatory remarks and glowing reviews. If you’re reading this 8^th edition, Mr. Colb or Dr. Pratt, thank you for taking the time to read this through, and (of course) thanks for the congratulatory remarks and glowing reviews. Let’s here a round of applause for these two gentlemen…<sound of people clapping>

Darrick Wong used Word97 to create the design, graphics and layouts of this book. Absolutely no clip art here! The graphs were done in Excel97. Most of the drawings were done using OfficeArt. The ugly drawings with jaggies were done in Windows Paintbrush. The equations requiring fractions or complex symbols were compsed using Equation Editor 3.0. The fancy lettering for the front page was done using WordArt 3.0. If you’re wondering about the table of contents, I did that using Word tables. I have not and will not use Word’s Table of Contents function; it does not suit my needs for the double table of contents. The "Contents by Energy Type Discussed" and "Contents at a Glance" sections were designed by Darrick Wong. It’s a strange manipulation of table functions. The "Contents in Depth" section was also designed by Darrick Wong. The chapter headings here are 2-cell tables, and the rest are tab and formatting tricks. The "Tables of Figures" is just more tables. Many of the drawings in this book that have text wraparound are fancy table manipulations. Some actually use Word’s frames, but they don’t work at all with Word’s drawing tools.

This book is not one large document; rather it is a set of individual documents. The front page is its own; the dedication and the table of contents are in their own document. The portfolio text has been split up by section for easy reference by concept cluster. The versioning numbering here is a bit strange. It has nothing to do with this "new math" rubbish. No, the formatting tricks I use aren’t copyrighted; any idiot could find the stuff in the Word documentation. For a while, I considered binding all the documents together in using Microsoft Office Binder, but it offers no real advantage to managing the multitudes of documents. If I can handle the documents myself, why throw a monkey wrench in the machine? Thanks for reading this fine print.

The body text in this book is formatted in Times New Roman, 12pt. Formulas included in the text are italicized Times New Roman, 12pt. Picture captions and table text are written in Arial Narrow, 12pt, which looks like this. Code examples and most floating point numbers in tables are written in Courier New, 12pt, which looks like this. Chapter and major section titles are written in Trebuchet MS, 18pt with underline and small caps, which looks like this. The section titles in the above introduction are written in Georgia, 13pt with underline and small caps, which looks like this. The subtable headers in the "Tables of Figures" section is written in Verdana, 16pt with underline. The drop caps featured as the first letter of each chapter were written in Augsburger Initials. The above "plagiarism free" declaration was written in Footlight MT, 14pt. The "What is Energy" on the front page was written in Standout and stretched accordingly. The "All New Sections!" on the first page was composed in Tahoma, 13pt. Other various parts have been scrawled out in Arial, 12 or 14pt. Sorry this paragraph looks like a note from a blackmailer. Occasionally I have pulled a sleight of hand and switched the titles to Tahoma 18pt. PS: Tahoma is a version of Verdana that is squeezed together.J
 

In the 8^th edition, I said that it would be the last version. Silly me. In early June 1997, we acquired Office97! Since it is now 1998, I have decided to turn the entire thing into an online book of sorts. I utilized Office’s hyperlink feature to make different books a mere click away, and perhaps it may even turn into a web page? I intend to separate the files containing the meat of the book into respective sections, because going by each edition is a bit weird.  We have also converted the book into an online, interactive HTML book.

Enjoy this physics book! (Still no plagiarism!)

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Location: Introduction